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OBSIDIAN AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE FOR
CAPPADOCIAN PRE-POTTERY NEOLITHIC
Öğr. Gör. Fevzi Volkan Güngördü
Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli Üniversitesi, Fen-Edebiyat Fakültesi
volkangungordu@nevsehir.edu.tr
ABSTRACT
During prehistoric times, due to its natural structure and impressive color,
obsidian was a common material for tool production. As a result of chemical
analyses, scientists are capable for source analyses on obsidians which have unique
elemental compositions in every different sources. By means of these analyses,
which obsidian sources were exploited to produce obsidian tools can be identified.
This information is significant for archaeologists in the process of realizing interregional connections.
Cappadocia region is one of the significant obsidian sources in the Near
East. Cappadocian obsidians were exploited and manufactured by local Pre-Pottery
Neolithic sites and they were diffused in Syria, Levant and Cyprus. The
identification of Cappadocian obsidians in different regions of the Near East is
important to show the connections between Syria, Levant, Cyprus and Cappadocia
in 10.000 years ago.
Keywords: Obsidian, chemical analyses, Pre-Pottery Neolithic, Near East,
Cappadocia.
OBSİDYEN VE SERAMİKSİZ NEOLİTİK DÖNEM’DE
KAPADOKYA İÇIN ÖNEMİ
ÖZET
Prehistorik çağlarda hem doğal yapısı hem de etkileyici rengi sayesinde
obsidyen alet üretiminde sıkça kullanılan bir hammaddedir. Kimyasal analizler
sonucunda ana kompozisyonunun anlaşılabileceği obsidyenin, farklı kaynaklarda
farklı birleşenleri içerisinde barındırması bilim adamlarına kaynak analizi yapma
imkânı sağlamaktadır. Bu sayede farklı yerleşimlerde ele geçen obsidyen aletlerin
üretiminde, hangi doğal kaynakların kullanıldığı saptanabilmektedir. Bu bilginin
arkeologlar açısından önemi ise, yazının olmadığı prehistorik çağlarda bölgeler arası
ilişkilerin obsidyen üzerinde yapılan bu analizler sonucunda saptanabilmesidir.
Yakındoğu’nun en önemli obsidyen kaynaklarından biri Kapadokya
bölgesidir. Kapadokya obsidyenleri günümüzden 10.000 yıl önce hem bu bölgedeki
yerel Seramiksiz Neolitik Dönem yerleşimleri tarafından kullanılmış hem de Suriye,
Doğu Akdeniz ve Kıbrıs gibi Yakındoğu’nun diğer bölgelerine de yayılmıştır.
Yakındoğu’ da farklı bölgelerde Kapadokya obsidyenin saptanması, Kapadokya’nın
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Kıbrıs, Suriye ve Doğu Akdeniz bölgeleri ile günümüzden 10.000 yıl önceki
ilişkilerini göstermesi açısından önemlidir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Obsidyen, kimyasal analizler, Seramiksiz Neolitik,
Yakındoğu, Kapadokya
I. OBSIDIAN AND ITS CHEMICAL CONFIGURATION
For prehistoric times, long before the existence of writing systems,
scientists must rely on materials which are available to understand the
prehistoric inter-regional connections. For that reason obsidian has a crucial
significance in Near Eastern archaeology
The term obsidian drives from the Roman named Obsius who lived
in Ethiopia (Balkan-Atlı, 2008: 191). Categorized as a glass, obsidian
consists of 70% silicon dioxide which is related to rhyolite and granite, and
also some non-silicious materials (Balkan-Atlı, 2008: 191; Whittaker, 1994:
69). Obsidian results from the rapid cooling of molten rock after a volcanic
eruption. If the molten rock does not cool rapidly enough, crystals separate
and the rock loses its glass quality (Whittaker, 1994: 69).
Obsidian mainly has a black or green color. Emergence of these
different colors is related to the oxidation status of the chemical elements.
For example the existence of magnetite causes a black color or hematite a
reddish color and iron a green (Balkan-Atlı, 2008: 191).
Especially in prehistoric times, obsidian was seen as perfect raw
material for tool production. Due to its more delicate nature relative to other
materials, obsidian can have a finer cutting edge. Consequently it is used to
manufacture blades and projectile points, (Whittaker, 1994: 69).
Geochemical analyses allow us to identify the elemental
composition of obsidian samples. Archaeologists can use these signatures to
locate the source of the raw material. Hence archaeologists can infer the
inter-regional connections in prehistoric times by means of these
geochemical analyses (Andrefsky, 2000: 41-42, Leute, 1987: 101).
Scientific studies on obsidian started in 1960s and continued to
develop in more recent years (Shackley, 2008: 199). Today different
geochemical analysis techniques (such as X-Ray fluorescence spectrometry
(XRF), Particle included X-ray emission analysis (PIXIE), Electron used
microprobe analysis (EMPA) and Instrumental neutron activation analysis
(INAA) are using on obsidian. Each technique requires different samplings
and provides different information (Andrefsky, 2000: 43).
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II. OBSIDIAN SOURCES IN THE NEAR EAST
In the Near East, Anatolia, Caucasia and some Aegean islands
contain obsidian deposits. Obsidian from Caucasian sources tends to be
found mainly at Transcaucasian sites. On the contrary, Anatolian obsidians
appear at many different regions in the Near East (Chataigner, Poidevin,
Arnaud, 1998: 518).
Obsidian sources in Anatolia can be separated into different groups
based on location: Central Anatolia, Southeastern Anatolia, Northeastern
Anatolia, Northern and Western Anatolia (Renfrew, Dixon, Cann, 1966: 33)
III. OBSIDIAN SOURCES IN CAPPADOCIA
In Cappadocia, obsidian deposits are known in the provinces of
Nevşehir, Niğde, Aksaray, east and south-east of the south end of the Tuz
Gölü (Todd, 1980: 30). In the Acıgöl area, Kaleiçi, Acıgöl, Güneydağ,
Kocatepe-Acıgöl and Hotamış Dağ are the main obsidian sources (Todd,
1980: 30). The Acıgöl and Çiftlik deposits are the oldest obsidian beds in
Anatolia (Ercan, Şaroğlu, Kuşcu 1994: 506). Obsidian sources in the Göllü
Dağ region (Niğde, Melendiz plain) are known from the Kömürcü Köyü
area, Sırça Deresi and Kayırlı (Todd, 1980:33). According to the chemical
analyses, Göllü Dağ obsidians can be divided into two different groups as
Göllü Dağ-East and Göllü Dağ-West (Chataigner, Poidevin, Arnaud 1998:
525-526). Moreover Nenezi Dağ contains a high dome with a large obsidian
flow on its western bank and there are some highly poisonous Barium-rich
obsidian sources exist in Hasan Dağ (Karakapı and Tahtayayla) (Ercan,
Şaroğlu, Kuşcu, 1994:506).
IIIa. Cappadocian Pre-Pottery Neolithic Sites and Obsidian
As it mentioned above, Cappadocia region contains numerous
obsidian sources. These different obsidian deposits were exploited by both
Cappadocian Neolithic sites and also some other Near Eastern Neolithic
sites.
In Aksaray province Aşıklı Höyük is one of the better known PrePottery Neolithic settlements. The architecture of Aşıklı Höyük consists of
clustered rectangular mudbrick dwellings, streets, alleys and also some
monumental buildings (Esin, 2000: 22-24; Esin, Harmankaya, 2007: 268).
The chipped stone industry of Aşıklı Höyük is mainly based on
obsidian. Nenezi Dağ and Kayırlı obsidian deposits were exploited by Aşıklı
Höyük’s inhabitants. Knapping occured both at these sources and also at
Aşıklı Höyük (Esin, Harmankaya, 2007: 266). The chipped stone
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assemblage contains cores, blades, bladelets, small triangels, lunates,
arrowheads, scrapers and burins (Balkan-Atlı, 1994: 221).
Musular which is located only 300/400 m. northwest of Aşıklı
Höyük, is another Pre-Pottery Neolithic site in Aksaray province with
significant obsidian artifact deposits (Özbaşaran, 2000a: 129). The PrePottery Neolithic architecture of Musular consists of Building A, units N and
Z, and some rock-cut and built channels (Özbaşaran et al, 2007: 274).
As at Aşıklı Höyük, the chipped stone industry of Musular is mainly
obsidian and the raw material can be sourced to Göllü Dağ and Nenezi Dağ
obsidian sources. The chipped stone assemblage there contains cores, flakes,
blades, scrapers, arrowheads, borers and burins (Kayacan, 2003: 7,
Özbaşaran, et al, 2007: 276, Duru, Özbaşaran, 2005: 22-23).
Kömürcü Kaletepe which is located on the northern slope of Göllü
Dağ on a rhylotic formation is an obsidian workshop where both the
exploitation and knapping processes were carried out (Balkan-Atlı et al.
1999: 3, Balkan-Atlı, Binder, 2001: 1). This site contains both MiddlePaleolithic and Pre-Pottery Neolithic layers (Balkan-Atlı, Binder, 2007:
218).
Kömürcü Kaletepe has a unique type of naviform bidirectional core
which has not been found on any other Anatolian Neolithic sites (BalkanAtlı, Binder, Cauvin, 1999: 138). These cores were used to produce
bidirectional blades which are significant to manufacture arrowheads.
Moreover the site also yields prismatic blade production assemblages.
According to Nur Balkan-Atlı and Didier Binder these two different
production techniques require a high proficiency (Balkan-Atlı, Binder, 2001:
12, Balkan-Atlı, Binder 2007: 219).
IIIb. Cappadocian Obsidians in the Near East
In the Near East, Cappadocian obsidians were found in Syria, Levant
and Cyprus. In terms of diffusion, evaluations can be classified in two
different aspects.
Firstly, as a raw material, Cappadocian obsidians have been found in
Syria, Levant and Cyprus. Göllü Dağ obsidians have been identified at
Syrian Pre-Pottery Neolithic sites such as Mureybet, Cheikh Hassan and Jerf
el-Ahmar. They also were recovered from the well-known Southern
Levantine Pre-Pottery Neolithic site of Jericho as well as the Cypriot
Neolithic site Khirokitia (Chataigner, Poidevin, Arnaud, 1998: 523-525,
Renfrew, Dixon, Cann, 1968: 325). In addition, Kömürcü obsidians were
found at some Syrian Pre-Pottery Neolithic sites such as Dja’ de, Mureybet
and Halula (Balkan-Atlı et al. 2000: 46, Balkan-Atlı, Binder, 2001: 14).
Kömürcü examples have been identified in another Cypriot Neolithic site,
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Shillourokambos (Balkan-Atlı et al. 2000: 46, Balkan-Atlı, Binder, 2001: 14,
Briois, Gratuze, Guilaine, 1997: 105).
Secondly, in terms of knapping techniques, the Kömürcü Kaletepe
obsidian workshop produced two types of blades: bidirectional and
prismatic. Although bidirectional blade production has been documented in
Syria and Levant at sites the Kaletepe style has only been recovered at Dja’
de. Prismatic blade production has been identified in Syria and Cyprus at
sites such as Mureybet, Tell Halula and Shillourokambos (Balkan-Atlı et al.
2000: 46, Balkan-Atlı, Binder, 2001: 14).
VI. SIGNIFICANCE OF OBSIDIAN IN CAPPADOCIAN PREPOTTERY NEOLITHIC CONTEXT
Obsidian is one of the common materials for tool production
especially in prehistoric times due to its fascinating color and natural
structure. Its fingerprint quality is crucial for archaeologist when the process
of understanding the interregional connections in prehistoric times when
long before the writing systems exist. By means of source analyses on
obsidian, archaeologists can identify the sources and then establish a relation
between the source location and the archaeological context where the
finished product belongs.
The Cappadocia region has a significant role in the Near East for
10.000 years due to both its central location and its possession of valuable
raw materials. In particular Cappadocia was one of the most significant
obsidian producing areas of the entire Near East. Geochemical analyses
show that Cappadocian obsidians reached in Syria, Levant and also Cyprus
revealing long distance cultural interactions 10. 000 years ago. Moreover
their presence at the Cypriot Pre-Pottery Neolithic sites Shillourokambos and
Khirokitia indicate maritime connections between Cappadocia and Cyprus
during earlier periods.
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Map: Diffusion of the Cappadocian Obsidians 10.000 years ago
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